{"id":21422,"date":"2025-08-07T03:43:19","date_gmt":"2025-08-07T03:43:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.bartehrman.com\/?p=21422"},"modified":"2025-08-09T16:53:43","modified_gmt":"2025-08-09T16:53:43","slug":"hypostatic-union","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.bartehrman.com\/hypostatic-union\/","title":{"rendered":"Hypostatic Union: Explaining the Two Natures of Jesus"},"content":{"rendered":"

Hypostatic Union: Explaining the Two Natures of Jesus<\/h2>\n

\"Marko<\/span><\/p>\n

Written by Marko Marina, Ph.D.<\/a><\/p>\n

Author |  Historian<\/p>\n

Author |  Historian |  BE Contributor<\/p>\n

Verified!  See our guidelines<\/a><\/p>\n

Verified!  See our editorial guidelines<\/a><\/p>\n

\nDate written: August 7th, 2025<\/p>\n\nDate written: August 7th, 2025\n

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. – Dr. Bart D. Ehrman<\/p>\n

What is the hypostatic union<\/strong>? This is the question I often pose to my students, usually right after they tell me they\u2019re practicing Catholics who attend Sunday Mass each week. Strangely enough, almost none of them has ever heard of the term. Not \u201chypostatic,\u201d not \u201cunion,\u201d not even a vague sense of what the phrase might refer to.<\/p>\n

That reality has always fascinated me. How can this be? Here are people who identify strongly with their faith tradition, participate regularly in its most central ritual, and yet remain unfamiliar with one of the most foundational doctrines of Christianity. <\/p>\n

Wouldn\u2019t you want to know what the religion you so deeply value actually teaches at its core? Apparently, not always.<\/p>\n

And yet, the doctrine of the hypostatic union lies at the very heart of mainstream Christian theology. It refers to the claim that Jesus Christ is fully God<\/a> <\/strong>and fully man, two complete natures united in one person.<\/p>\n

This belief gradually emerged as the culmination of centuries of theological reflection, debate, and often bitter controversy. The process involved a wide array of competing views about Jesus\u2019 identity<\/a>, many of which were eventually declared heretical, though they were once held by some of the most intellectually sophisticated Christians of their day.<\/p>\n

This article traces that historical journey. We\u2019ll begin by exploring how early Christian communities (rooted in a deeply monotheistic Jewish tradition) grappled with the divine claims made about Jesus. <\/p>\n

We\u2019ll then survey the major Christological positions that emerged in the 2nd through 4th centuries: Adoptionism, Apollinarianism, Arianism, Monophysitism, and Nestorianism.<\/p>\n

Finally, we\u2019ll arrive at Chalcedon and examine how the formulation of the hypostatic union came to define what would be, for most Christian traditions, the definitive answer to the question: Who was Jesus<\/a>?<\/p>\n

Importantly, this article isn\u2019t an exercise in theological advocacy. We aren\u2019t endorsing or rejecting any particular belief or disbelief about Jesus\u2019 divinity. Rather, our goal is to approach these topics historically.<\/p>\n

How did early Christians articulate their beliefs? What kinds of debates shaped those articulations? These are the questions that will guide us in the pages that follow. <\/p>\n

However, before our journey into the wild diversity of early Christian views about Jesus\u2019 identity begins, we thought, \u201cWhy not make life easier for our readers!?\u201d<\/p>\n

So, because we\u2019re cool like that (and because we believe you deserve nothing less than the best), we\u2019ve crafted a neat little table that lays out the key Christological schools <\/strong>in one quick glance. Consider this your theological cheat sheet. No heavy lifting required!<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

View<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/th>\n

\n

Century<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/th>\n

\n

Definition\/Main Idea<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n

\n

Adoptionism<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

(At least) 2nd century C.E.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Jesus was born human and \u201cadopted\u201d by God either at his baptism or resurrection.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Arianism<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4th century C.E.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Jesus was divine but not eternal, created by God and subordinate to the Father.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Apollinarianism<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4th century C.E.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Jesus had a divine mind but not a human soul. His divinity replaced it.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Nestorianism<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5th century C.E.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Jesus had two separate natures and persons (divine and human) loosely united.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Monophysitism<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5th century C.E.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Jesus had only one nature after the incarnation. His humanity was absorbed.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Chalcedonian definition<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

\u201cOfficially\u201d defined in 451 C.E.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Jesus is one person in two full natures (divine and human) without confusion or division \u2014 Hypostatic Union<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

\"hypostatic<\/span><\/p>\n

Where Did It All Begin? Centuries Before the Hypostatic Union<\/h2>\n

Today, most critical scholars agree on a broad understanding of who Jesus really was. Needless to say, there are still many debates and polemics regarding various elements of his self-understanding, but there is a consensus about some key aspects.<\/p>\n

In his book How Jesus Became God<\/a>, Bart D. Ehrman asserts:<\/p>\n

(Affiliate Disclaimer: We may earn commissions on products you purchase through this page at no additional cost to you. Thank you for supporting our site!<\/em>)<\/p>\n

I think there are excellent reasons for thinking<\/strong> that Jesus imagined himself as the messiah, in a very specific and particular sense. The messiah was thought to be the future ruler of the people of Israel. But as an apocalypticist, Jesus did not think that the future kingdom was going to be won by a political struggle or a military engagement per se. It was going to be brought by the Son of Man, who came in judgment against everyone and everything opposed to God. Then the kingdom would arrive. And I think Jesus believed<\/strong> he himself would be the king in that kingdom.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/span>\"\"<\/span><\/p>\n

These are the words of a contemporary scholar who has spent decades studying and analyzing the earliest sources about Jesus to formulate historical reconstructions and plausible conclusions. <\/p>\n

To put it more bluntly, the Jesus described here isn\u2019t a figure of full-blown Trinitarian theology, nor one consciously promoting what would later be called the hypostatic union.<\/p>\n

Instead, he is a deeply Jewish apocalyptic preacher (firmly rooted in the worldview of 1st-century Palestine) who expected divine intervention<\/a> to inaugurate God\u2019s kingdom and envisioned himself as a central figure within it.<\/p>\n

The origins of Christological controversy lie precisely in the tension between this historical figure and the theological claims that began to swirl around him in the decades and centuries after his death. Much of that tension can already be detected in the New Testament itself.<\/p>\n

We often forget that the New Testament isn\u2019t a unified book<\/strong> but a collection of writings composed by different authors at different times, each offering distinct perspectives. It should not surprise us, then, that the language used to describe Jesus contains paradoxical (and sometimes competing) affirmations.<\/p>\n

On the one hand, the humanity of Jesus is portrayed with striking clarity. The Synoptic Gospels place Jesus firmly within the world of 1st-century Judaism. Apart from his miracles, Jesus appears fully human: He is born, grows hungry, experiences sorrow, associates with others, and dies a very human death<\/a>.<\/p>\n

At the same time, the New Testament also contains high Christological affirmations. The Gospel of John opens with the striking claim that \u201cthe Word became flesh\u201d (John 1:14), identifying Jesus not just as a messenger from God but as the divine Logos incarnate. John 13:3 speaks of Jesus coming from God and returning to God.<\/p>\n

The Book of Hebrews<\/a> reinforces this divine portrait by declaring Jesus to be the agent through whom the world was created (Hebrews 1:2), who \u201ccomes into the world\u201d from a preexistent state (Hebrews 1:6; 10:5).<\/p>\n

Even Matthew, which is generally considered to reflect a more Jewish perspective, depicts Jesus’ birth<\/a> as a supernatural event, a fulfillment of divine prophecy involving a virgin conception. On top of all that came the early belief that God raised and exalted Jesus<\/a>! <\/p>\n

These theological layers coexist with the more human portrayals and are evidence of how early Christian communities were already wrestling with Jesus’ identity in complex ways.<\/p>\n

In his book The Writings of the New Testament<\/a>, Luke T. Johnson explains the complexity that dominated early Christian world: <\/p>\n

It was not enough for the first Christians to experience the transforming transcendent power of the Spirit and proclaim that Jesus was Lord. They also had to interpret their lives in the light of this overwhelming experience. Out of the struggle of the first believers to find meaning in the paradox of the mediation<\/strong> of the holy through the death of a man, there emerged the interpretation of their existence.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/span>\"\"<\/span><\/p>\n

This paradox (Jesus as both fully human and somehow divine) sits at the root of the Christological debates that would dominate the church\u2019s first several centuries. The earliest followers of Jesus didn\u2019t begin with a settled doctrine; they began with experiences, memories, imaginations, and convictions that eventually required intellectual and theological clarification.<\/p>\n

The doctrine of the hypostatic union would ultimately emerge as an attempt to resolve this tension, to provide a coherent framework in which both Jesus\u2019 divinity and humanity could be affirmed without contradiction. <\/p>\n

But that resolution was a long time coming. And needless to say, it never managed to satisfy every Christian community!<\/p>\n

But the main point is that the story of the hypostatic union, then, begins not with agreement, but with deep and enduring diversity! A diversity that only amplified in the centuries following Jesus\u2019 death.<\/p>\n

Christological Schools and Their Controversies (2nd-5th Centuries)<\/h2>\n

It was the great Catholic scholar Raymond E. Brown<\/a> who once observed what he called the \u201cbackwards trajectory<\/strong>\u201d of Christology in the canonical Gospels. In the latest Gospel to be written (John) Jesus\u2019 divine status is placed prior to his earthly existence: He is the preexistent Word who was \u201cwith God\u201d and who was God. <\/p>\n

By contrast, in the earliest Gospel (Mark) Jesus\u2019 divinity is traced to a particular moment in time: His baptism in the Jordan River, when the heavens open and a voice declares, \u201cYou are my beloved Son.\u201d <\/p>\n

Going even further back, Brown noted certain pre-Pauline traditions preserved in the speeches of Acts in which Jesus\u2019 exaltation to divine status is said to occur only at the resurrection.<\/p>\n

In short, early Christian texts offered multiple, competing models of when (and even whether<\/a>) Jesus became divine. As Bart Ehrman, in How Jesus Became God, notes:<\/p>\n

Views of Jesus did not develop along a straight line<\/strong> in every part of early Christianity and at the same rate. Different Christians in different churches in different regions had different views of Jesus, almost from the get-go. I argue that there were two fundamentally different<\/strong> Christological views: one that saw Jesus as a being from \u2018down below\u2019 who came to be \u2018exalted\u2019, and the other that saw Jesus as a being originally from \u2018up above\u2019 who came to earth from the heavenly realm (the view I\u2019ll explore in the next chapter). But even within these two fundamentally different types of Christology, there were significant variations.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/span>\"\"<\/span><\/p>\n

The branch of thought that emphasized Jesus\u2019 elevation to divine status (whether at his baptism or resurrection) came to be known as Adoptionism<\/strong>.<\/p>\n

The term is a modern scholarly label derived from the idea that Jesus, though born a mere human, was \u201cadopted\u201d as God\u2019s Son by divine decree. This model found early proponents such as Theodotus of Byzantium in the late 2nd century, who taught that Jesus was empowered by the Spirit at his baptism <\/strong>and was rewarded for his virtue with divine status.<\/p>\n

If Adoptionism placed its emphasis on Jesus\u2019 humanity, Arianism <\/strong>took a very different tack. Named after Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria active in the early 4th century, this view held that Jesus wasn\u2019t co-eternal<\/strong> with the Father<\/a>. He was divine, yes, but a secondary divinity, created by God before the world began. There was a time, Arius famously insisted, when \u201cthe Son was not.\u201d <\/p>\n

This formulation was too much for most bishops<\/a> to accept, especially those seeking to maintain Jesus’ full and unqualified divinity. The dispute became so heated that the Roman Emperor Constantine himself stepped in, convening the Council of Nicaea<\/a> in 325 C.E. in an attempt to restore unity.<\/p>\n

Although the Nicene Creed famously condemned Arius\u2019 position, the controversy did not end there, despite Constantine\u2019s<\/a> determined efforts, which culminated in Arius\u2019 expulsion. It appears that even Constantine himself underestimated the depth of the tensions and divisions.<\/p>\n

Klaus M. Girardet, in his book Der Kaiser und sein Gott: Das Christentum im Denken und in der Religionspolitik Konstantins des Gro\u00dfen<\/a> (The Emperor and His God: Christianity in the Thought and Religious Policy of Constantine the Great), explains:<\/p>\n

The emperor could hardly have anticipated at the outset that his policy of promoting Christianity would also bring with it highly problematic side effects among the Christians themselves. For in various regions of the empire \u2013 such as in North Africa (the Donatists) and, beginning in Egypt, throughout the East (the Arians) \u2013 there were theologically grounded conflicts among Christians, which were accompanied by mutual excommunications<\/strong>, violent confrontations<\/strong>, and the establishment of rival <\/strong>Christian communities <\/strong>and clerical hierarchies. (my translation)<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/span>\"\"<\/span><\/p>\n

Into this already fractious environment stepped Apollinaris of Laodicea (c. 310-c. 390), who doubled down on the full divinity of Christ, perhaps a bit too much.<\/p>\n

Aloys Grillmeier, in his study Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon<\/a>, explains Apollinarius\u2019 starting position:<\/p>\n

The metaphysical framework from which Apollinarius seeks to interpret the being of Christ is a picture of the substantial unity of man as a synthesis of body and soul<\/strong>. For him, the God-man is a compound unity in human form. His particular aim in this phrase is to describe the way in which God and man are conjoined in Christ. A mere \u2018God dwelling in man,\u2019 he says, is no man. Incarnation, as it must be envisaged in Christ, only comes about if divine pneuma and earthly sarx [physical body] together form a substantial unity in such a way that the man in Christ first becomes man through the union of these two components.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/span>\"\"<\/span><\/p>\n

In other words, Apollinaris insisted that the divine Logos<\/strong> had taken the place of a rational human soul in Jesus. That is, Jesus had a human body but not a human mind or will; those functions were fulfilled by the eternal Word.<\/p>\n

This formulation became known as logos-sarx Christology (Word-flesh), and it found a particularly receptive home in Alexandria. But critics pointed out a glaring problem: If Jesus lacked a human mind, how could he be said to have fully assumed the human condition?<\/p>\n

Did You Know?<\/strong><\/p>\n

When Bakers Debated the Trinity and Barbers Quoted Theology<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

In the 4th century, Christological debates weren\u2019t just for bishops, councils, and theologians. Instead, it seems that they were everyone\u2019s business. According to Gregory of Nazianzus<\/strong>, theological arguments had gone so mainstream that they turned up everywhere.He complained that \u201cevery marketplace must buzz with their talking, and every dinner party be worried to death with silly talk and boredom.\u201d Imagine trying to enjoy your wine while your neighbor drones on about the nature of the Logos!Gregory of Nyssa<\/strong> paints an even more hilarious picture: \u201cEverywhere\u2026 people would stop you and discourse at random about the Trinity.\u201d Try buying bread or changing coins in Constantinople, and you\u2019d get an impromptu lecture on whether the Son is begotten or unbegotten, subordinate or coequal.In short, unlike some of my students today (no offense, folks!), the average 4th-century baker, barber, and banker, at least according to some contemporary sources, had very strong views<\/strong> on Jesus\u2019 nature and they weren\u2019t afraid to shout them across the public square. <\/em><\/p>\n

In reaction to Apollinaris and the Alexandrian camp more broadly, theologians from Antioch emphasized Christ\u2019s full humanity<\/strong>. This position, known as logos-anthropos Christology (Word-man), maintained that the divine Word was united not to just a human body, but to a complete human person. <\/p>\n

Pushing this idea to its limits was Nestorius, a monk from Antioch who became archbishop of Constantinople in 428. <\/p>\n

Nestorius was especially concerned to protect the distinction between Jesus\u2019 divine and human natures<\/strong>.<\/p>\n

Christiane Fraisse-Cou\u00e9<\/a> provides an excellent summary of Nestorius\u2019 views:<\/p>\n

Nestorius does not approach the issue here from the standpoint of a comprehensive Christological reflection, but rather in order to resolve a conflict within the Church under his care. The title Theotokos <\/strong>[Mother of God], Nestorius observes, is found neither in Scripture nor among the Fathers of Nicaea<\/strong>; in his view, the term bears the mark of the heresies of Arius and Apollinaris, since it suggests that the Word must be attributed a birth in time. Worse still, it amounts to no longer distinguishing in Christ the human nature from the divine nature, and to allowing only God the Word to remain: a mother <\/strong>can only give birth to<\/strong> someone of the same essence<\/strong> as herself, and no one gives birth to someone older than themselves. Mary gave birth to a man; the Virgin must therefore be called Christotokos [The Mother of Christ]. The title Theotokos can be granted to her only insofar as she gave birth to a man considered to be the temple of God the Word, inseparably united to him. (my translation)<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/span>\"\"<\/span><\/p>\n

Needless to say, this didn\u2019t go over well. Nestorius’ fiercest opponent was Cyril of Alexandria, a theologian as brilliant as he was combative. Cyril saw Nestorius\u2019 position as a dangerous division of Jesus into two persons and sprang into action with remarkable speed and intensity.<\/p>\n

By 429, he had already penned refutations and lobbied Pope Celestine I in Rome, who agreed to condemn Nestorius<\/strong> at a synod in 430. The following year, Emperor Theodosius II convened the Council of Ephesus to resolve the issue. The council, effectively dominated by Cyril and his allies, condemned Nestorianism and affirmed Mary\u2019s title as Theotokos.<\/p>\n

Nestorius was deposed and exiled, and while his followers would eventually form a separate church (most notably flourishing in Persia) his teachings were forbidden within the empire.<\/p>\n

The council may have tried to settle the matter, but new controversies soon followed. In 447, yet another theologian stirred the pot, this time from the monastic world of Constantinople. Eutyches (c. 378-454), an archimandrite in the city, began teaching that Jesus had only one nature <\/strong>(mon\u0113 physis) after the incarnation.<\/p>\n

In his effort to preserve the unity of Jesus\u2019 person against what he saw as Nestorius\u2019 divisive dualism, Eutyches went too far in the opposite direction. His view (later termed Monophysitism<\/strong>) essentially erased Jesus\u2019 human nature. The divine had so absorbed the human, he claimed, that only one nature remained. <\/p>\n

This position, unsurprisingly, alarmed those who had just fought so hard to preserve Christ\u2019s full humanity.<\/p>\n

But Eutyches was undeterred. Faced with mounting opposition, he appealed directly to the imperial court. After all, the emperor Theodosius II had thus far backed the Monophysite position, surely he would continue to support a devout monk defending the singular nature of Christ, right? <\/p>\n

Well\u2026 not quite. Before any firm decision could be cemented, Theodosius II unexpectedly died. And with his death, the political tides shifted rapidly. Eutyches would soon discover that emperors may favor you one day and vanish the next, along with your theological fortunes.<\/p>\n

What came next would take place at a council we\u2019ve yet to discuss: Chalcedon<\/strong>. But that, as they say, is another chapter in the saga\u2026<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

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The New Testament Gospels are anonymous. So why did early Christians say they were written by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John? And what’s the evidence that they actually did?<\/p>\n

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Council of Chalcedone and the Rise of Hypostatic Union<\/h2>\n

Before any imperial judgment was rendered, another (and arguably more decisive) intervention <\/strong>occurred. That intervention came from none other than the bishop of Rome, Pope Leo I<\/strong>, whose theological weight and political influence would soon shift the entire course of the Christological debates.<\/p>\n

In 449 CE, Leo penned a dogmatic letter, famously known as the \u201dTome of Leo,\u201d<\/a> addressed to the Patriarch of Constantinople. In it, he sought to clarify the \u201corthodox\u201d position: That there were two natures of Jesus, one human and one divine, united in one person <\/strong>(persona).<\/p>\n

The divine and the human, Leo insisted, are neither confused nor divided! <\/p>\n

After Theodosius\u2019 death in 450, his sister Pulcheria and her husband, the new emperor Marcian, reversed imperial support and aligned themselves with Leo and the Western bishops.<\/p>\n

In response to the mounting tensions and theological divisions, they called a new ecumenical council <\/strong>to be held in Chalcedon<\/strong>, near Constantinople, in the autumn of 451. It was at Chalcedon that the long-brewing debates over Jesus\u2019 nature(s) reached a defining moment.<\/p>\n

Drawing heavily on Leo\u2019s Tome, the council sought a middle path between Nestorius and Eutyches (between dividing Jesus into two persons and reducing him to a single divine nature). When Leo\u2019s letter was read aloud at the council, an enthusiastic acclamation allegedly broke out among the bishops: \u201cPeter has spoken through Leo! This is what we believe!\u201d<\/p>\n

The council\u2019s decree<\/a> was as theologically dense as it was rhetorically elegant. It declared that Jesus Christ is one single Christ<\/strong>, Son, Lord, Monogenic, without confusion, without change, without division, without separation<\/strong>, the difference in natures being in no way suppressed by the union, but rather the properties of each being safeguarded and reunited in a single person and a single hypostasis.<\/p>\n

That final word (hypostasis) became the defining term of the council\u2019s Christology. This was the hypostatic union<\/strong>: The teaching that in the one person, two natures of Jesus (divine and human) exist in perfect, indivisible unity.<\/p>\n

This doctrine became the cornerstone of orthodox Christology in both the Western Church<\/a> and the Eastern (Byzantine) imperial tradition. But that didn\u2019t mean everyone accepted it! <\/p>\n

On the contrary, the decisions of Chalcedon provoked fierce backlash in large parts of the Christian East. In Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, many believers continued to hold to Monophysite <\/strong>convictions, rejecting Chalcedon as a betrayal of true faith. The council, in their eyes, compromised Jesus’ unity. <\/p>\n

Even as imperial edicts attempted to enforce Chalcedonian orthodoxy, the opposition proved remarkably resilient. For more than two centuries after Chalcedon, emperors and bishops fought (sometimes with theology, sometimes with soldiers) to impose or suppress rival views.<\/p>\n

But despite imperial authority and ecclesiastical muscle, the Monophysite churches survived. They endured marginalization, persecution, and theological condemnation. And then, in the 7th century<\/strong>, something extraordinary happened.<\/p>\n

A new religious and political force swept through Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and beyond, conquering vast territories once ruled by Byzantium. These were precisely the lands where anti-Chalcedonian Christians were quite popular.<\/p>\n

Can you guess who came? Let\u2019s just say\u2026 it wasn\u2019t a council that silenced the Monophysites. It was something (or someone) else entirely!<\/p>\n

\"two<\/span><\/p>\n

Conclusion<\/h2>\n

In light of everything we\u2019ve explored, it\u2019s not all that surprising that so few people today (my students included!) have heard of the hypostatic union. The doctrine, after all, is the product of centuries of theological refinement<\/strong>, philosophical speculation, and imperial politics.<\/p>\n

What began as a movement centered on the teachings and crucifixion of a 1st-century Jewish preacher<\/a> eventually evolved into a highly sophisticated set of claims about divine and human natures united in one person; claims formalized (but never fully agreed upon!) only after generations of controversy and debate.<\/p>\n

And yet, the very fact that this doctrine endured, debated and defined across empires, tells us something about the power of ideas in shaping religious identity. The hypostatic union isn\u2019t just a piece of abstract theology. Rather, it\u2019s a window into how early Christians wrestled with the mystery of Jesus\u2019 identity and what was at stake in their answers.<\/p>\n

Whether one accepts the doctrine or not, its story reveals a profound and very human struggle that shaped the most influential religion in the history of Western civilization.<\/p>\n

FAQ: Questions About Jesus\u2019 Identity<\/h2>\n

It\u2019s not over yet! In discussions about Jesus\u2019 divinity and humanity, certain questions come up again and again, sometimes from students, sometimes from curious readers.<\/p>\n

Below, we briefly explore a few of these perennial favorites. It\u2019s important to note that our goal here is to present how mainstream Christian theology has traditionally responded, without <\/strong>endorsing or rejecting any particular belief.<\/p>\n

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE of the Historical Jesus!<\/p>\n

Think you know the Jesus of the Bible?  Uncover the historical figure behind the texts!<\/p>\n

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It’s free!<\/em><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Hypostatic Union: Explaining the Two Natures of Jesus Written by Marko Marina, Ph.D. Author |  Historian Author |  Historian |  BE Contributor Verified!  See our guidelines Verified!  See our editorial guidelines Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. – Dr. Bart D. […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":9,"featured_media":21423,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":"","tve_updated_post":"

\n\t
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Hypostatic Union: Explaining the Two Natures of Jesus<\/h2><\/div>
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Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman<\/p><\/div>

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What is the hypostatic union<\/strong>? This is the question I often pose to my students, usually right after they tell me they\u2019re practicing Catholics who attend Sunday Mass each week. Strangely enough, almost none of them has ever heard of the term. Not \u201chypostatic,\u201d not \u201cunion,\u201d not even a vague sense of what the phrase might refer to.<\/p>

That reality has always fascinated me. How can this be? Here are people who identify strongly with their faith tradition, participate regularly in its most central ritual, and yet remain unfamiliar with one of the most foundational doctrines of Christianity. <\/p>

Wouldn\u2019t you want to know what the religion you so deeply value actually teaches at its core? Apparently, not always.<\/p>

And yet, the doctrine of the hypostatic union lies at the very heart of mainstream Christian theology. It refers to the claim that Jesus Christ is fully God<\/a> <\/strong>and fully man, two complete natures united in one person.<\/p>

This belief gradually emerged as the culmination of centuries of theological reflection, debate, and often bitter controversy. The process involved a wide array of competing views about Jesus\u2019 identity<\/a>, many of which were eventually declared heretical, though they were once held by some of the most intellectually sophisticated Christians of their day.<\/p>

This article traces that historical journey. We\u2019ll begin by exploring how early Christian communities (rooted in a deeply monotheistic Jewish tradition) grappled with the divine claims made about Jesus. <\/p>

We\u2019ll then survey the major Christological positions that emerged in the 2nd through 4th centuries: Adoptionism, Apollinarianism, Arianism, Monophysitism, and Nestorianism.<\/p>

Finally, we\u2019ll arrive at Chalcedon and examine how the formulation of the hypostatic union came to define what would be, for most Christian traditions, the definitive answer to the question: Who was Jesus<\/a>?<\/p>

Importantly, this article isn\u2019t an exercise in theological advocacy. We aren\u2019t endorsing or rejecting any particular belief or disbelief about Jesus\u2019 divinity. Rather, our goal is to approach these topics historically.<\/p>

How did early Christians articulate their beliefs? What kinds of debates shaped those articulations? These are the questions that will guide us in the pages that follow. <\/p>

However, before our journey into the wild diversity of early Christian views about Jesus\u2019 identity begins, we thought, \u201cWhy not make life easier for our readers!?\u201d<\/p>

So, because we\u2019re cool like that (and because we believe you deserve nothing less than the best), we\u2019ve crafted a neat little table that lays out the key Christological schools <\/strong>in one quick glance. Consider this your theological cheat sheet. No heavy lifting required!<\/p><\/div>

View<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/th>

Century<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/th>

Definition\/Main Idea<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/th><\/tr><\/thead>

Adoptionism<\/p><\/div><\/td>

(At least) 2nd century C.E.<\/p><\/div><\/td>

Jesus was born human and \u201cadopted\u201d by God either at his baptism or resurrection.<\/p><\/div><\/td><\/tr>

Arianism<\/p><\/div><\/td>

4th century C.E.<\/p><\/div><\/td>

Jesus was divine but not eternal, created by God and subordinate to the Father.<\/p><\/div><\/td><\/tr>

Apollinarianism<\/p><\/div><\/td>

4th century C.E.<\/p><\/div><\/td>

Jesus had a divine mind but not a human soul. His divinity replaced it.<\/p><\/div><\/td><\/tr>

Nestorianism<\/p><\/div><\/td>

5th century C.E.<\/p><\/div><\/td>

Jesus had two separate natures and persons (divine and human) loosely united.<\/p><\/div><\/td><\/tr>

Monophysitism<\/p><\/div><\/td>

5th century C.E.<\/p><\/div><\/td>

Jesus had only one nature after the incarnation. His humanity was absorbed.<\/p><\/div><\/td><\/tr>

Chalcedonian definition<\/p><\/div><\/td>

\u201cOfficially\u201d defined in 451 C.E.<\/p><\/div><\/td>

Jesus is one person in two full natures (divine and human) without confusion or division \u2014 Hypostatic Union<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/div>

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Where Did It All Begin? Centuries Before the Hypostatic Union<\/h2><\/div>

Today, most critical scholars agree on a broad understanding of who Jesus really was. Needless to say, there are still many debates and polemics regarding various elements of his self-understanding, but there is a consensus about some key aspects.<\/p>

In his book How Jesus Became God<\/a>, Bart D. Ehrman asserts:<\/p>

(Affiliate Disclaimer: We may earn commissions on products you purchase through this page at no additional cost to you. Thank you for supporting our site!<\/em>)<\/p><\/div>

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I think there are excellent reasons for thinking<\/strong> that Jesus imagined himself as the messiah, in a very specific and particular sense. The messiah was thought to be the future ruler of the people of Israel. But as an apocalypticist, Jesus did not think that the future kingdom was going to be won by a political struggle or a military engagement per se. It was going to be brought by the Son of Man, who came in judgment against everyone and everything opposed to God. Then the kingdom would arrive. And I think Jesus believed<\/strong> he himself would be the king in that kingdom.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>

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These are the words of a contemporary scholar who has spent decades studying and analyzing the earliest sources about Jesus to formulate historical reconstructions and plausible conclusions. <\/p>

To put it more bluntly, the Jesus described here isn\u2019t a figure of full-blown Trinitarian theology, nor one consciously promoting what would later be called the hypostatic union.<\/p>

Instead, he is a deeply Jewish apocalyptic preacher (firmly rooted in the worldview of 1st-century Palestine) who expected divine intervention<\/a> to inaugurate God\u2019s kingdom and envisioned himself as a central figure within it.<\/p>

The origins of Christological controversy lie precisely in the tension between this historical figure and the theological claims that began to swirl around him in the decades and centuries after his death. Much of that tension can already be detected in the New Testament itself.<\/p>

We often forget that the New Testament isn\u2019t a unified book<\/strong> but a collection of writings composed by different authors at different times, each offering distinct perspectives. It should not surprise us, then, that the language used to describe Jesus contains paradoxical (and sometimes competing) affirmations.<\/p>

On the one hand, the humanity of Jesus is portrayed with striking clarity. The Synoptic Gospels place Jesus firmly within the world of 1st-century Judaism. Apart from his miracles, Jesus appears fully human: He is born, grows hungry, experiences sorrow, associates with others, and dies a very human death<\/a>.<\/p>

At the same time, the New Testament also contains high Christological affirmations. The Gospel of John opens with the striking claim that \u201cthe Word became flesh\u201d (John 1:14), identifying Jesus not just as a messenger from God but as the divine Logos incarnate. John 13:3 speaks of Jesus coming from God and returning to God.<\/p>

The Book of Hebrews<\/a> reinforces this divine portrait by declaring Jesus to be the agent through whom the world was created (Hebrews 1:2), who \u201ccomes into the world\u201d from a preexistent state (Hebrews 1:6; 10:5).<\/p>

Even Matthew, which is generally considered to reflect a more Jewish perspective, depicts Jesus' birth<\/a> as a supernatural event, a fulfillment of divine prophecy involving a virgin conception. On top of all that came the early belief that God raised and exalted Jesus<\/a>! <\/p>

These theological layers coexist with the more human portrayals and are evidence of how early Christian communities were already wrestling with Jesus' identity in complex ways.<\/p>

In his book The Writings of the New Testament<\/a>, Luke T. Johnson explains the complexity that dominated early Christian world: <\/p><\/div>

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It was not enough for the first Christians to experience the transforming transcendent power of the Spirit and proclaim that Jesus was Lord. They also had to interpret their lives in the light of this overwhelming experience. Out of the struggle of the first believers to find meaning in the paradox of the mediation<\/strong> of the holy through the death of a man, there emerged the interpretation of their existence.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>

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This paradox (Jesus as both fully human and somehow divine) sits at the root of the Christological debates that would dominate the church\u2019s first several centuries. The earliest followers of Jesus didn\u2019t begin with a settled doctrine; they began with experiences, memories, imaginations, and convictions that eventually required intellectual and theological clarification.<\/p>

The doctrine of the hypostatic union would ultimately emerge as an attempt to resolve this tension, to provide a coherent framework in which both Jesus\u2019 divinity and humanity could be affirmed without contradiction. <\/p>

But that resolution was a long time coming. And needless to say, it never managed to satisfy every Christian community!<\/p>

But the main point is that the story of the hypostatic union, then, begins not with agreement, but with deep and enduring diversity! A diversity that only amplified in the centuries following Jesus\u2019 death.<\/p><\/div>

Christological Schools and Their Controversies (2nd-5th Centuries)<\/h2><\/div>

It was the great Catholic scholar Raymond E. Brown<\/a> who once observed what he called the \u201cbackwards trajectory<\/strong>\u201d of Christology in the canonical Gospels. In the latest Gospel to be written (John) Jesus\u2019 divine status is placed prior to his earthly existence: He is the preexistent Word who was \u201cwith God\u201d and who was God. <\/p>

By contrast, in the earliest Gospel (Mark) Jesus\u2019 divinity is traced to a particular moment in time: His baptism in the Jordan River, when the heavens open and a voice declares, \u201cYou are my beloved Son.\u201d <\/p>

Going even further back, Brown noted certain pre-Pauline traditions preserved in the speeches of Acts in which Jesus\u2019 exaltation to divine status is said to occur only at the resurrection.<\/p>

In short, early Christian texts offered multiple, competing models of when (and even whether<\/a>) Jesus became divine. As Bart Ehrman, in How Jesus Became God, notes:<\/p><\/div>

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Views of Jesus did not develop along a straight line<\/strong> in every part of early Christianity and at the same rate. Different Christians in different churches in different regions had different views of Jesus, almost from the get-go. I argue that there were two fundamentally different<\/strong> Christological views: one that saw Jesus as a being from \u2018down below\u2019 who came to be \u2018exalted\u2019, and the other that saw Jesus as a being originally from \u2018up above\u2019 who came to earth from the heavenly realm (the view I\u2019ll explore in the next chapter). But even within these two fundamentally different types of Christology, there were significant variations.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>

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The branch of thought that emphasized Jesus\u2019 elevation to divine status (whether at his baptism or resurrection) came to be known as Adoptionism<\/strong>.<\/p>

The term is a modern scholarly label derived from the idea that Jesus, though born a mere human, was \u201cadopted\u201d as God\u2019s Son by divine decree. This model found early proponents such as Theodotus of Byzantium in the late 2nd century, who taught that Jesus was empowered by the Spirit at his baptism <\/strong>and was rewarded for his virtue with divine status.<\/p>

If Adoptionism placed its emphasis on Jesus\u2019 humanity, Arianism <\/strong>took a very different tack. Named after Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria active in the early 4th century, this view held that Jesus wasn\u2019t co-eternal<\/strong> with the Father<\/a>. He was divine, yes, but a secondary divinity, created by God before the world began. There was a time, Arius famously insisted, when \u201cthe Son was not.\u201d <\/p>

This formulation was too much for most bishops<\/a> to accept, especially those seeking to maintain Jesus' full and unqualified divinity. The dispute became so heated that the Roman Emperor Constantine himself stepped in, convening the Council of Nicaea<\/a> in 325 C.E. in an attempt to restore unity.<\/p>

Although the Nicene Creed famously condemned Arius\u2019 position, the controversy did not end there, despite Constantine\u2019s<\/a> determined efforts, which culminated in Arius\u2019 expulsion. It appears that even Constantine himself underestimated the depth of the tensions and divisions.<\/p>

Klaus M. Girardet, in his book Der Kaiser und sein Gott: Das Christentum im Denken und in der Religionspolitik Konstantins des Gro\u00dfen<\/a> (The Emperor and His God: Christianity in the Thought and Religious Policy of Constantine the Great), explains:<\/p><\/div>

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The emperor could hardly have anticipated at the outset that his policy of promoting Christianity would also bring with it highly problematic side effects among the Christians themselves. For in various regions of the empire \u2013 such as in North Africa (the Donatists) and, beginning in Egypt, throughout the East (the Arians) \u2013 there were theologically grounded conflicts among Christians, which were accompanied by mutual excommunications<\/strong>, violent confrontations<\/strong>, and the establishment of rival <\/strong>Christian communities <\/strong>and clerical hierarchies. (my translation)<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>

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Into this already fractious environment stepped Apollinaris of Laodicea (c. 310-c. 390), who doubled down on the full divinity of Christ, perhaps a bit too much.<\/p>

Aloys Grillmeier, in his study Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon<\/a>, explains Apollinarius\u2019 starting position:<\/p><\/div>

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The metaphysical framework from which Apollinarius seeks to interpret the being of Christ is a picture of the substantial unity of man as a synthesis of body and soul<\/strong>. For him, the God-man is a compound unity in human form. His particular aim in this phrase is to describe the way in which God and man are conjoined in Christ. A mere \u2018God dwelling in man,\u2019 he says, is no man. Incarnation, as it must be envisaged in Christ, only comes about if divine pneuma and earthly sarx [physical body] together form a substantial unity in such a way that the man in Christ first becomes man through the union of these two components.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>

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In other words, Apollinaris insisted that the divine Logos<\/strong> had taken the place of a rational human soul in Jesus. That is, Jesus had a human body but not a human mind or will; those functions were fulfilled by the eternal Word.<\/p>

This formulation became known as logos-sarx Christology (Word-flesh), and it found a particularly receptive home in Alexandria. But critics pointed out a glaring problem: If Jesus lacked a human mind, how could he be said to have fully assumed the human condition?<\/p><\/div>

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Did You Know?<\/strong><\/p><\/div>

When Bakers Debated the Trinity and Barbers Quoted Theology<\/strong><\/em><\/p><\/div>

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In the 4th century, Christological debates weren\u2019t just for bishops, councils, and theologians. Instead, it seems that they were everyone\u2019s business. According to Gregory of Nazianzus<\/strong>, theological arguments had gone so mainstream that they turned up everywhere.

He complained that \u201cevery marketplace must buzz with their talking, and every dinner party be worried to death with silly talk and boredom.\u201d Imagine trying to enjoy your wine while your neighbor drones on about the nature of the Logos!

Gregory of Nyssa<\/strong> paints an even more hilarious picture: \u201cEverywhere\u2026 people would stop you and discourse at random about the Trinity.\u201d Try buying bread or changing coins in Constantinople, and you\u2019d get an impromptu lecture on whether the Son is begotten or unbegotten, subordinate or coequal.

In short, unlike some of my students today (no offense, folks!), the average 4th-century baker, barber, and banker, at least according to some contemporary sources, had very strong views<\/strong> on Jesus\u2019 nature and they weren\u2019t afraid to shout them across the public square. <\/em><\/p><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>

In reaction to Apollinaris and the Alexandrian camp more broadly, theologians from Antioch emphasized Christ\u2019s full humanity<\/strong>. This position, known as logos-anthropos Christology (Word-man), maintained that the divine Word was united not to just a human body, but to a complete human person. <\/p>

Pushing this idea to its limits was Nestorius, a monk from Antioch who became archbishop of Constantinople in 428. <\/p>

Nestorius was especially concerned to protect the distinction between Jesus\u2019 divine and human natures<\/strong>.<\/p>

Christiane Fraisse-Cou\u00e9<\/a> provides an excellent summary of Nestorius\u2019 views:<\/p><\/div>

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Nestorius does not approach the issue here from the standpoint of a comprehensive Christological reflection, but rather in order to resolve a conflict within the Church under his care. The title Theotokos <\/strong>[Mother of God], Nestorius observes, is found neither in Scripture nor among the Fathers of Nicaea<\/strong>; in his view, the term bears the mark of the heresies of Arius and Apollinaris, since it suggests that the Word must be attributed a birth in time. Worse still, it amounts to no longer distinguishing in Christ the human nature from the divine nature, and to allowing only God the Word to remain: a mother <\/strong>can only give birth to<\/strong> someone of the same essence<\/strong> as herself, and no one gives birth to someone older than themselves. Mary gave birth to a man; the Virgin must therefore be called Christotokos [The Mother of Christ]. The title Theotokos can be granted to her only insofar as she gave birth to a man considered to be the temple of God the Word, inseparably united to him. (my translation)<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>

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Needless to say, this didn\u2019t go over well. Nestorius' fiercest opponent was Cyril of Alexandria, a theologian as brilliant as he was combative. Cyril saw Nestorius\u2019 position as a dangerous division of Jesus into two persons and sprang into action with remarkable speed and intensity.<\/p>

By 429, he had already penned refutations and lobbied Pope Celestine I in Rome, who agreed to condemn Nestorius<\/strong> at a synod in 430. The following year, Emperor Theodosius II convened the Council of Ephesus to resolve the issue. The council, effectively dominated by Cyril and his allies, condemned Nestorianism and affirmed Mary\u2019s title as Theotokos.<\/p>

Nestorius was deposed and exiled, and while his followers would eventually form a separate church (most notably flourishing in Persia) his teachings were forbidden within the empire.<\/p>

The council may have tried to settle the matter, but new controversies soon followed. In 447, yet another theologian stirred the pot, this time from the monastic world of Constantinople. Eutyches (c. 378-454), an archimandrite in the city, began teaching that Jesus had only one nature <\/strong>(mon\u0113 physis) after the incarnation.<\/p>

In his effort to preserve the unity of Jesus\u2019 person against what he saw as Nestorius\u2019 divisive dualism, Eutyches went too far in the opposite direction. His view (later termed Monophysitism<\/strong>) essentially erased Jesus\u2019 human nature. The divine had so absorbed the human, he claimed, that only one nature remained. <\/p>

This position, unsurprisingly, alarmed those who had just fought so hard to preserve Christ\u2019s full humanity.<\/p>

But Eutyches was undeterred. Faced with mounting opposition, he appealed directly to the imperial court. After all, the emperor Theodosius II had thus far backed the Monophysite position, surely he would continue to support a devout monk defending the singular nature of Christ, right? <\/p>

Well\u2026 not quite. Before any firm decision could be cemented, Theodosius II unexpectedly died. And with his death, the political tides shifted rapidly. Eutyches would soon discover that emperors may favor you one day and vanish the next, along with your theological fortunes.<\/p>

What came next would take place at a council we\u2019ve yet to discuss: Chalcedon<\/strong>. But that, as they say, is another chapter in the saga\u2026<\/p><\/div>

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Council of Chalcedone and the Rise of Hypostatic Union<\/h2><\/div>

Before any imperial judgment was rendered, another (and arguably more decisive) intervention <\/strong>occurred. That intervention came from none other than the bishop of Rome, Pope Leo I<\/strong>, whose theological weight and political influence would soon shift the entire course of the Christological debates.<\/p>

In 449 CE, Leo penned a dogmatic letter, famously known as the \u201dTome of Leo,\u201d<\/a> addressed to the Patriarch of Constantinople. In it, he sought to clarify the \u201corthodox\u201d position: That there were two natures of Jesus, one human and one divine, united in one person <\/strong>(persona).<\/p>

The divine and the human, Leo insisted, are neither confused nor divided! <\/p>

After Theodosius\u2019 death in 450, his sister Pulcheria and her husband, the new emperor Marcian, reversed imperial support and aligned themselves with Leo and the Western bishops.<\/p>

In response to the mounting tensions and theological divisions, they called a new ecumenical council <\/strong>to be held in Chalcedon<\/strong>, near Constantinople, in the autumn of 451. It was at Chalcedon that the long-brewing debates over Jesus\u2019 nature(s) reached a defining moment.<\/p>

Drawing heavily on Leo\u2019s Tome, the council sought a middle path between Nestorius and Eutyches (between dividing Jesus into two persons and reducing him to a single divine nature). When Leo\u2019s letter was read aloud at the council, an enthusiastic acclamation allegedly broke out among the bishops: \u201cPeter has spoken through Leo! This is what we believe!\u201d<\/p>

The council\u2019s decree<\/a> was as theologically dense as it was rhetorically elegant. It declared that Jesus Christ is one single Christ<\/strong>, Son, Lord, Monogenic, without confusion, without change, without division, without separation<\/strong>, the difference in natures being in no way suppressed by the union, but rather the properties of each being safeguarded and reunited in a single person and a single hypostasis.<\/p>

That final word (hypostasis) became the defining term of the council\u2019s Christology. This was the hypostatic union<\/strong>: The teaching that in the one person, two natures of Jesus (divine and human) exist in perfect, indivisible unity.<\/p>

This doctrine became the cornerstone of orthodox Christology in both the Western Church<\/a> and the Eastern (Byzantine) imperial tradition. But that didn\u2019t mean everyone accepted it! <\/p>

On the contrary, the decisions of Chalcedon provoked fierce backlash in large parts of the Christian East. In Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, many believers continued to hold to Monophysite <\/strong>convictions, rejecting Chalcedon as a betrayal of true faith. The council, in their eyes, compromised Jesus' unity. <\/p>

Even as imperial edicts attempted to enforce Chalcedonian orthodoxy, the opposition proved remarkably resilient. For more than two centuries after Chalcedon, emperors and bishops fought (sometimes with theology, sometimes with soldiers) to impose or suppress rival views.<\/p>

But despite imperial authority and ecclesiastical muscle, the Monophysite churches survived. They endured marginalization, persecution, and theological condemnation. And then, in the 7th century<\/strong>, something extraordinary happened.<\/p>

A new religious and political force swept through Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and beyond, conquering vast territories once ruled by Byzantium. These were precisely the lands where anti-Chalcedonian Christians were quite popular.<\/p>

Can you guess who came? Let\u2019s just say\u2026 it wasn\u2019t a council that silenced the Monophysites. It was something (or someone) else entirely!<\/p><\/div>

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Conclusion<\/h2><\/div>
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In light of everything we\u2019ve explored, it\u2019s not all that surprising that so few people today (my students included!) have heard of the hypostatic union. The doctrine, after all, is the product of centuries of theological refinement<\/strong>, philosophical speculation, and imperial politics.<\/p>

What began as a movement centered on the teachings and crucifixion of a 1st-century Jewish preacher<\/a> eventually evolved into a highly sophisticated set of claims about divine and human natures united in one person; claims formalized (but never fully agreed upon!) only after generations of controversy and debate.<\/p>

And yet, the very fact that this doctrine endured, debated and defined across empires, tells us something about the power of ideas in shaping religious identity. The hypostatic union isn\u2019t just a piece of abstract theology. Rather, it\u2019s a window into how early Christians wrestled with the mystery of Jesus\u2019 identity and what was at stake in their answers.<\/p>

Whether one accepts the doctrine or not, its story reveals a profound and very human struggle that shaped the most influential religion in the history of Western civilization.<\/p><\/div>

FAQ: Questions About Jesus\u2019 Identity<\/h2><\/div>
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It\u2019s not over yet! In discussions about Jesus\u2019 divinity and humanity, certain questions come up again and again, sometimes from students, sometimes from curious readers.<\/p>

Below, we briefly explore a few of these perennial favorites. It\u2019s important to note that our goal here is to present how mainstream Christian theology has traditionally responded, without <\/strong>endorsing or rejecting any particular belief.<\/p><\/div>

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When Jesus Prayed, Was it To Himself?<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t
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According to traditional Christian theology, Jesus prayed to the Father<\/strong>, not to himself. While Jesus and the Father are understood to be of one essence in Trinitarian thought, they are distinct persons<\/strong> within the Godhead. So Jesus, as the Son, prayed to the Father in an expression of his relational identity, not self-address.<\/p> \t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>

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Did Jesus Have Two Wills?<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t
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Yes! At least according to the doctrine known as dyothelitism<\/strong>, affirmed at the Third Council of Constantinople in 681 C.E.<\/p>

It states that Jesus, having two complete natures (divine and human), also had two wills: a divine will and a human will. These two wills are believed to be perfectly united and never in conflict.\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/p><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>

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Was Jesus Both Omniscient and Ignorant?<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t
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This is one of the trickiest questions! The traditional Christian view attempts to resolve it by appealing to the concept of kenosis <\/strong>(from the Greek keno\u014d, \u201cto empty\u201d), based on Philippians 2:7, which says Christ \u201cemptied himself\u201d in becoming human.<\/p>

Some theologians argue that in the incarnation, Jesus voluntarily refrained from exercising certain divine attributes, including omniscience. Hence, verses like \u201cno one knows the day or the hour, not even the Son\u201d (Mark 13:32) are seen as reflecting his genuine human limitation, not a denial of divinity.<\/p> \t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>

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}[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3285\"] > .tve-cb { justify-content: center; display: flex; flex-direction: column; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3318\"] { width: 32px; --tve-alignment: center; float: none; margin: 0px auto !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3329\"] { margin-top: 0px; margin-left: 0px; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3305\"] { height: 65px !important; --tve-applied-height: 65px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3335\"] { --tve-alignment: left; float: left; left: -17px; width: 65px; top: -17px; z-index: 2 !important; margin: 0px auto !important; position: absolute !important; padding: 0px !important; --tve-applied-width: 65px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3335\"] > .tve-cb { justify-content: center; display: flex; flex-direction: column; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b32e1\"] { --tve-alignment: left; float: left; bottom: -17px; width: 65px; right: -17px; z-index: 2 !important; margin: 0px auto !important; position: absolute !important; padding: 0px !important; --tve-applied-width: 65px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b32e1\"] > .tve-cb { justify-content: center; display: flex; flex-direction: column; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3350\"] { height: 65px !important; --tve-applied-height: 65px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3365\"] { width: 32px; --tve-alignment: center; float: none; margin: 0px auto !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3374\"] { margin-top: 0px; margin-left: 0px; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3347\"] { background-color: var(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; --background-color: var(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; --tve-applied-background-color: var$(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b32b1\"] { background-image: none !important; --background-image: none !important; --tve-applied-background-image: none !important; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b32c2\"] { font-size: 19px !important; line-height: 1.6em !important; padding-top: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 0px !important; margin-bottom: 0px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3380\"] { max-width: unset; --tve-alignment: center; float: none; width: unset; margin-left: auto !important; margin-right: auto !important; padding: 30px !important; --tve-applied-max-width: unset !important; --tve-applied-width: unset !important; margin-bottom: 40px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3398\"] { background-color: var(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; --background-color: var(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; --tve-applied-background-color: var$(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3380\"] > .tve-cb { display: block; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] { text-align: center; --tve-color: rgb(39,39,42); --tve-applied---tve-color: rgb(39,39,42); --tve-font-weight: var(--g-regular-weight,normal); --tve-font-family: Jost; --g-regular-weight: 400; --g-bold-weight: 700; --tve-line-height: 1.20em; min-height: 1px; --tve-applied-min-height: unset !important; height: unset !important; --tve-applied-height: unset !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33c8\"] { border: 1px solid rgb(255, 133, 34) !important; --tve-applied-border: 1px solid rgb(255,133,34) !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33b9\"] { max-width: unset; margin-top: 0px !important; margin-bottom: 0px !important; --tve-applied-max-width: unset !important; padding: 8% !important; }:not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] p, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] li, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] blockquote, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] address, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] .tcb-plain-text, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] label, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] h1, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] h2, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] h3, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] h4, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] h5, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] h6 { color: var(--tve-color,null); --tve-applied-color: var$(--tve-color,null); font-family: var(--tve-font-family,Jost); }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] { --tve-color: null; --tve-applied---tve-color: null; --tve-font-weight: var(--g-regular-weight,normal); --tve-font-family: Jost; --g-regular-weight: 400; --g-bold-weight: 700; --tve-font-size: 16px; --tve-line-height: 1.60em; min-height: 110px; }:not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] p, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] li, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] blockquote, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] address, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] .tcb-plain-text, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] label, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] h1, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] h2, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] h3, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] h4, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] h5, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] h6 { color: var(--tve-color,rgb(39,39,42)); --tve-applied-color: var$(--tve-color,rgb(39,39,42)); --tcb-applied-color: rgb(39,39,42); font-family: var(--tve-font-family,Jost); }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] p, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] li, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] blockquote, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] address, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] .tcb-plain-text, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] label { font-weight: var(--tve-font-weight,var(--g-regular-weight,normal)); }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] p, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] li, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] blockquote, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] address, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] .tcb-plain-text, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33a0\"] label { font-weight: var(--tve-font-weight,var(--g-regular-weight,normal)); }:not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] p, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] li, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] blockquote, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] address, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] .tcb-plain-text, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33d4\"] label { font-size: var(--tve-font-size,16px); line-height: var(--tve-line-height,1.60em); }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3424\"] { background-color: var(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; --background-color: var(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; --tve-applied-background-color: var$(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3409\"]::after { clear: both; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33b9\"] > .tve-cb { justify-content: center; display: flex; flex-direction: column; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3440\"] { width: 32px; --tve-alignment: center; float: none; margin: 0px auto !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3452\"] { margin-top: 0px; margin-left: 0px; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3431\"] { height: 65px !important; --tve-applied-height: 65px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3463\"] { --tve-alignment: left; float: left; left: -17px; width: 65px; top: -17px; z-index: 2 !important; margin: 0px auto !important; position: absolute !important; padding: 0px !important; --tve-applied-width: 65px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3463\"] > .tve-cb { justify-content: center; display: flex; flex-direction: column; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3415\"] { --tve-alignment: left; float: left; bottom: -17px; width: 65px; right: -17px; z-index: 2 !important; margin: 0px auto !important; position: absolute !important; padding: 0px !important; --tve-applied-width: 65px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3415\"] > .tve-cb { justify-content: center; display: flex; flex-direction: column; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3485\"] { height: 65px !important; --tve-applied-height: 65px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3491\"] { width: 32px; --tve-alignment: center; float: none; margin: 0px auto !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b34a6\"] { margin-top: 0px; margin-left: 0px; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b3478\"] { background-color: var(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; --background-color: var(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; --tve-applied-background-color: var$(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33e2\"] { background-image: none !important; --background-image: none !important; --tve-applied-background-image: none !important; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-688926742b33f1\"] { font-size: 19px !important; line-height: 1.6em !important; padding-top: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 0px !important; margin-bottom: 0px !important; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a03\"] { border: 1px solid rgb(252, 174, 3); --tve-applied-border: 1px rgb(252,174,3) solid; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a04\"] > .tve_table > thead > tr > th { background-color: rgb(255, 133, 34); --tve-applied-background-color: rgb(255,133,34); }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a04\"] > .tve_table > tbody > tr:nth-child(2n) > td { background-color: rgb(246, 246, 246); }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a04\"] > .tve_table > tbody > tr:nth-child(2n+1) > td { background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] p, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] li, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] blockquote, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] address, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] .tcb-plain-text, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] label, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] h1, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] h2, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] h3, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] h4, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] h5, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a05\"] h6 { color: rgb(255, 255, 255); }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] p, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] li, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] blockquote, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] address, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] .tcb-plain-text, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] label, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] h1, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] h2, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] h3, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] h4, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] h5, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a07\"] h6 { color: rgb(84, 85, 88); }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a04\"] .tve_table td, [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a04\"] .tve_table th { padding: 12px; text-align: center; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a09\"] { font-size: 16px !important; font-family: \"Open Sans\" !important; font-weight: 400 !important; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a0a\"] { font-size: 16px !important; font-family: \"Open Sans\" !important; font-weight: 400 !important; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a0b\"] { font-size: 16px !important; font-family: \"Open Sans\" !important; font-weight: 400 !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a09\"] strong { font-weight: 600 !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a0a\"] strong { font-weight: 600 !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a0b\"] strong { font-weight: 600 !important; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a0c\"] { font-size: 16px !important; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a03\"] > tbody > tr > td { border: 1px solid rgb(252, 174, 3); border-collapse: unset; --tve-applied-border: 1px rgb(252,174,3) solid; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a03\"] > thead > tr > th { border: 1px solid rgb(252, 174, 3); --tve-applied-border: 1px rgb(252,174,3) solid; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857cb8a04\"] { margin-top: 1px !important; margin-bottom: 40px !important; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cc3bac\"] { width: 180px; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857cc58ca\"] { width: 200px; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857e95281\"] { --tve-border-width: 2px; --tve-border-radius: 8px; border-radius: 8px; overflow: hidden; background-image: linear-gradient(rgb(255, 255, 255), rgb(255, 255, 255)) !important; background-size: auto !important; background-position: 50% 50% !important; background-attachment: scroll !important; background-repeat: no-repeat !important; --background-image: linear-gradient(rgb(255,255,255),rgb(255,255,255)) !important; --background-size: auto !important; --background-position: 50% 50% !important; --background-attachment: scroll !important; --background-repeat: no-repeat !important; --tve-applied-background-image: linear-gradient(rgb(255,255,255),rgb(255,255,255)) !important; border: 2px solid rgb(202, 163, 104) !important; --tve-applied-border: 2px solid rgb(202,163,104) !important; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857e95283\"] { padding-bottom: 0px !important; margin-bottom: 0px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857e95284\"] { font-size: 60px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 60px; height: 60px; --tcb-local-color-icon: rgb(255,133,34); --tcb-local-color-var: rgb(255,133,34); --tve-icon-size: 60px; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857e95284\"] > :first-child { color: rgb(255, 133, 34); --tve-applied-color: rgb(255,133,34); }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857e95285\"] { max-width: 18%; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857e95286\"] { max-width: 82%; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857e95287\"] { margin-top: 5px !important; margin-bottom: 5px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857e95288\"] { padding-top: 1px !important; padding-bottom: 1px !important; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857e95289\"] { font-size: 26px !important; padding-bottom: 0px !important; margin-bottom: 0px !important; }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857e9a0eb\"] { font-size: 22px !important; padding-bottom: 0px !important; margin-bottom: 0px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f0\"] { max-width: unset; --tve-alignment: center; float: none; width: unset; margin-left: auto !important; margin-right: auto !important; padding: 30px !important; --tve-applied-max-width: unset !important; --tve-applied-width: unset !important; margin-bottom: 40px !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f1\"] { background-color: var(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; --background-color: var(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; --tve-applied-background-color: var$(--tcb-skin-color-22) !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f0\"] > .tve-cb { display: block; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] { text-align: center; --tve-color: rgb(39,39,42); --tve-applied---tve-color: rgb(39,39,42); --tve-font-weight: var(--g-regular-weight,normal); --tve-font-family: Jost; --g-regular-weight: 400; --g-bold-weight: 700; --tve-line-height: 1.20em; min-height: 1px; --tve-applied-min-height: unset !important; height: unset !important; --tve-applied-height: unset !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f3\"] { border: 1px solid rgb(255, 133, 34) !important; --tve-applied-border: 1px solid rgb(255,133,34) !important; }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f4\"] { max-width: unset; margin-top: 0px !important; margin-bottom: 0px !important; --tve-applied-max-width: unset !important; padding: 8% !important; }:not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] p, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] li, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] blockquote, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] address, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] .tcb-plain-text, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] label, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] h1, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] h2, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] h3, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] h4, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] h5, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] h6 { color: var(--tve-color,null); --tve-applied-color: var$(--tve-color,null); font-family: var(--tve-font-family,Jost); }[data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] { --tve-color: null; --tve-applied---tve-color: null; --tve-font-weight: var(--g-regular-weight,normal); --tve-font-family: Jost; --g-regular-weight: 400; --g-bold-weight: 700; --tve-font-size: 16px; --tve-line-height: 1.60em; min-height: 110px; }:not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] p, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] li, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] blockquote, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] address, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] .tcb-plain-text, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] label, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] h1, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] h2, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] h3, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] h4, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] h5, :not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] h6 { color: var(--tve-color,rgb(39,39,42)); --tve-applied-color: var$(--tve-color,rgb(39,39,42)); --tcb-applied-color: rgb(39,39,42); font-family: var(--tve-font-family,Jost); }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] p, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] li, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] blockquote, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] address, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] .tcb-plain-text, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] label { font-weight: var(--tve-font-weight,var(--g-regular-weight,normal)); }:not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] p, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] li, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] blockquote, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] address, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] .tcb-plain-text, :not(#tve) [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f2\"] label { font-weight: var(--tve-font-weight,var(--g-regular-weight,normal)); }:not(#tve) .thrv-content-box [data-css=\"tve-u-19857fb58f5\"] 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